Examining the Human Security Challenges Emanating from the Weaponisation of Women. A Case study of Boko Haram and the Islamic State 2001-2018
Article Sidebar
111)
Main Article Content
Authors
Abstract
355
The post-cold war period has witnessed an evolution in the nature of conflict from the new wars of the 1990s to asymmetric conflicts involving the weaponisation of civilians. This has achieved the twin objective of operating within the ranks of the combatants (in the case of women) as wives and child-bearers of the fighters, and inflicting harm on adversaries through suicide attacks. The weaponisation of women in the case of the wars in Syria and Nigeria has therefore elicited both human security challenges for the communities being targeted, and for the weaponised women. The biggest dilemma facing states of origin has been whether to accept the weaponised women’s return and rehabilitate them or declare them stateless. There has been a clear tendency to securitise them, especially when internal political dynamics are factored in. This qualitative study uses a case study approach to delve into the human security challenges emanating from the weaponisation of women in the case of Boko Haram and the Islamic State between 2001 and 2018. The paper further relies on content analysis to delve deeper into the discourse on human security. Through the use of a human security conceptual framework and securitisation theory, the paper argues that although once weaponised, some women become human security threats to targeted communities, and also face human security challenges during and after the insurgency, there is a need to deal with the women on a case-by-case basis rather than pursuing a blanket policy of securitising them. States need to work with international organisations to action processes aimed at delivering justice, demobilisation, rehabilitation, and the reintegration of these women. This will uphold international law and respect for human rights.
Keywords
References
Acharya, A., «Human security: East versus west», International journal, vol. 56, no. 3, 2001, pp. 442-460.
Abdulrasheed, O.; Bello, A. and Onuselogu, A., «Historical analysis of Boko Haram Insurgency on Educational Management in Northern Nigeria». European Centre for Research Training and Development UK. Global Journal of Arts Humanities and Social Sciences. vol. 02, n.º 10, 2014, pp. 77-83.
Abington, T., «Armies of Women: The Syrian crisis and the new war thesis», 2019. Available at: https://www.e-ir.info/2019/03/27/armies-of-women-the-syriancrisis- and-the-new-war-thesi/ [accessed 04/04/2019].
Alkire, S., «A Conceptual Framework for Human Security». Working Paper 2, Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity, University of Oxford, 2003. Available at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?- doi=10.1.1.580.2805&rep=rep1&type=pdf [accessed 4/1/2019].
Amnesty International, «Syrian government targets the wounded and healthcare workers», 2011. Available at: http://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/mde240592011en_22.pdf [accessed 24/11/2019].
Asaf, Y., «Syrian women and the refugee crisis: Surviving the conflict, building peace, and taking new gender roles», 2017. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci [accessed 28/04/2019].
Budig, M., and Jones, K., Feminist Theory. USA: Sage Publications, 2008.
Burton, J. and Soore, R., «Understanding the Strategic Implications of the Weaponization of Artificial Intelligence». Paper presented at the 11th International Conference on Cyber Conflict (CyCon), vol. 900, 2019, pp. 1-17.
Bloom, M. and Matfess, H., «Women, Peace, and Inclusive Security», Prism, vol. 06, nº 01, 2016.
Bloom, M. and Matfess, H., «Women as symbols and swords in Boko Haram’s terror», Prism, vol. 06, nº 01, 2016, pp. 104-121 Callimachi, R., and Yuhas, A., «Alabama woman who joined ISIS can’t return home, U.S. Says.» The New York Times 20th February 2019. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/20/world/middleeast/isis-bride-hodamuthana.html
Campbell, J., «Women and the Boko Haram Insurgency». Council on Foreign Relations 2015. Available at: https://www.cfr.org/blog/women-and-boko-haram-insurgency
Campbell, J. and Harwood, A., «Boko Haram’s Deadly impact». Council on Foreign Relations. 20th August 2018. Available at: https://www.cfr.org/article/boko-harams-deadly-impact [accessed 10/11/2019].
Cartner, H., «I Will Never Go Back to School: The Impact of Attacks on Education for Nigerian Women and Girls». Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack, 2018.
Charrett, C., «A critical application of securitization theory: overcoming the normative dilemma of writing security». International Catalan Institute for Peace, Working Paper, 2009.
Chinkin, C. and Kaldor, M., «Gender and New Wars». Journal of International Affairs, vol. 67, n. 1, 2013, pp. 167-87.
Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A., «Greed and grievance in civil war». Oxford Economic Papers, vol. 56, n. 4, 2004, pp. 563-595.
Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now: Final Report. New York: CHS, 2003.
Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate, «Gender dimension of the returning foreign terrorist fighters: Research Perspective.» United Nations Security Council, 2019.
Davidson, H. and Doherty, B., Australian Families trapped in Isis Camps offer to be put under control orders if they can return. The Guardian 26th October 2019, Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/26/australian-families-trapped-in-isis-camps-offer-to-be-put-under-control-orders-ifthey-can-return [accessed 3/5/2020].
Doherty, B., Birth of boy sparks renewed calls to rescue Australians in Syria’s squalid al-Hawl camp. The Guardian 11th December 2019. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/11/birth-of-boy-sparks-renewed-calls-torescue-australians-in-syrias-squalid-al-hawl-camp [accessed 4/5/2020].
Enloe, C., Bananas, beaches and bases: Making feminist sense of international politics. University of California Press, 2014.
Eroukhmanoff, C., «Securitisation theory». in Getting Started with International Relations Theory McGinchey, Walters and Scheinpflug (eds) E-International Relations Publishing, 2017.
Fink, N. S., «The Blue Flag in Grey Zones: Exploring the relationships between Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) and Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) in UN field operations», in UN DDR in an era of violent extremism. Is it fit for purpose? Cockayne J., and O’Neil, S. (eds), United Nations University, 2015 (pp. 62-79)
Fouad, M. et al., «Health workers and the weaponization of health care in Syria». Preliminary inquiry for The Lancet. American University of Beirut Commission on Syria, 2017.
Gardham., D., «Shamima Begum faces extreme scenario in citizenship appeal.» The Guardian 24th October 2019 Gitta, A., «Uganda 20 years since ‘Aboke girls’ abduction». Deutsche Welle, 2016. Available at: https://www.dw.com/en/uganda-20-years-since-aboke-girls-abduction/a-35993023
Global Extremism Monitor, «Violent Islamist Extremism in 2017». Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, 2017, pp. 256-257.
Global Counter-Terrorism Forum, «Good Practices on Women and Countering Violent Extremism», 2013. Available at https://www.thegctf.org/Portals/1/Documents/Framework%20Documents/GCTF%20Good%20Practices%20on%20Women%20and%20CVE.pdf?ver=2016-03-29-134644-853
Human Rights Watch, «Razed to the ground. Syria’s unlawful neighbourhood demolitions in 2012-2013», 2013. Available at: https://www.hrm.org/report/2014/01/30/razed-ground/syrias-unlawful-neighborhooddemolitions-2012-2013
Ibrahim, H., Ertl, V., Catani, C., Ismail, A.A., Neuner, F., «Trauma and perceived social rejection among Yazidi women and girls who survived enslavement and genocide». BMC Medicine, vol. 16, n.º 1, 2018.
Iyi, J.M., «The Weaponization of women by Boko Haram and the Prospects of accountability ». Springer International Publishing AG, 2018.
Jasko, K., Kruglanski, A., Hassan, A., Gunaratna, N., «ISIS: Its History, Ideology, and Psychology». In: Handbook of Contemporary Islam and Muslim Lives. Springer, Woodward, M. Lukens-Bull, R. (eds), 2018.
Kaldor, M., «In defense of new wars». International Journal of Security and Development, vol. 2, n.º 1, 2013 Kale, S., «How Terrorist Groups Like ISIS Use Sexual Violence to Lure Recruits», 2017. Accessed At: https://www.vice.com/en_asia/article/mb7yga/how-terrorist-groups-like-isis-use-sexual-violence-to-lure-recruits
Mai, H.J., «Why European Countries are Reluctant to Repatriate Citizens who are ISIS Fighters». NPR, 10th December 2019. Available at https://www.npr.org/2019/12/10/783369673/europe-remains-reluctant-to-repatriate-its-isisfighters-here-s-why?t=1590162368356 Acc
Mainstream Muslim Scholars, «ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria): Origins, Ideology, and Responses. A Resource for Community Leaders». National Centre of Excellence for Islamic Studies. 2016, Available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/55120ecae4b01593abadc441/t/58fe89feff7c-5003d9acbd86/1493076
Malik, N., «Trafficking terror: how modern slavery and sexual violence fund terrorism ». The Henry Jackson Society, 2017.
Mantzikos, I., «Boko Haram: Anatomy of a Crisis». e-International Relations, UK: Bristol, 2013.
Markovic, V., «Suicide squad: Boko Haram’s use of the female suicide bomber». Women & Criminal Justice, vol. 29, n. 4-5, 2019, pp. 283-302.
Matfess, H., «Women and the War on Boko Haram: Wives, Weapons, Witnesses». Zed Books Ltd, 2017.
Menon, S., «Human Security: Concept and Practice». Paper n. 2478, MPRA, 2007.
McGinchey, W. and Scheinpflug (eds) Getting Started with International Relations Theory E-International Relations Publishing, 2017.
Mueller, J., «Policing the Remnants of War». Journal of Peace Research, vol. 40, n. 5, 2003, pp. 55-518 Newman, E., «Human security and constructivism». International studies perspectives, vol. 2, n. 3, 2001, pp. 239-251.
Oosterveld, W. and Bloem, W., «The Rise and Fall of ISIS: From Evitability to Inevitability». The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies 2016-2017.
Pearson, E., Abdulbasit, K., Barkindo, A., Idayat H., Zacharias P., and Omar M., «Boko Haram Beyond the Headlines: Analyses of Africa’s Enduring Insurgency.» Report. Edited by Zenn Jacob. Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, 2018, pp33-52.
Pincus, R., «To Prostitute the Elements: Weather Control and Weaponization by US Department of Defence». War & Society, vol. 36, n. 1, 2017.
Poole, S., «Weaponise! The meaning of 2017’s political buzzword». The Guardian. 27th March 2017, Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/mar/27/weaponise-the-meaning-of-2017s-political-buzzword [accessed 13/07/2019].
Popovski, V. and Maiangwa, B., «Boko Haram’s attacks and the people’s response: A ‘fourth pillar of the responsibility to protect?» African Security Review, vol. 25, n. 2, 2016, pp. 159-175.
Sempijja, N. and Nkosi, B., «National Counter-Terrorism (C-T) Policies and Challenges to Human Rights and Civil Liberties: Case study of Kenya». In: International Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism. International Human Rights. Singapore: Springer, E. Shor and S. Hoadley (eds.), 2019, pp 431-44.
Sempijja, N. and Eyita-Okon, E., «Counter-Terrorism Resolutions and Initiatives by Regional Institutions: African Union and African Commission on Human and People’s Rights». In: International Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism. International Human Rights. Singapore: Springer. E. Shor and S. Hoadley (eds.), 2019.
Semple, K., «Yazidi Girls Seized by ISIS Speak Out After Escape». The New York Times, 15th November 2014, p. A4.
Singh, J., «Human Security: A Theoretical Analysis». International Journal of Political Science and Development, vol. 2 Iss. 8, 2014, pp. 175-179.
Tadjbakshs, S., «Human security: concepts and implications with an application to post-intervention challenges in Afghanistan». Les Estudes du Ceri, 2005, no. 117-118.
Tickner, J. A., «Gendering a Discipline: Some Feminist Methodological Contribution to International Relations». Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, vol. (30), Issue n. 4, 2005, pp. 2173-2188.
Trends, U., «Relevant COI for Assessments on the Availability of an Internal Flight or Relocation Alternative (IFA/IRA) for Yazidis in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KR-I)».
Vale, G., «Cubs in the Lions’ Den: Indoctrination and Recruitment of Children Within Islamic State Territory». International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation, July 5, 2018.
Waisova, S., «Human Security – the Contemporary Paradigm?» Institute of International Relations, NGO. Perspectives, n. 20, 2003, pp. 58-78.
Walker, A. and Wintour, P., «UK will not put officials at risk to rescue Isis Britons, says minister». The Guardian 14th February 2019 Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/feb/14/uk-isis-britons-officials-risk-syria-schoolgirl-shamima-begum [accessed 04/03/2020].
Yahaya, A., «Boko Haram and Islamic State of Iraq and Syria: The Nexus». Polac International Journal of Humanities and Security Studies, vol. 2, n. 1, 2016, pp. 299-312.
Metrics
|
|
Details
Article Details
RIGHTS TRANSFER
By submitting the article for evaluation and subsequent publication in Anuario Español de Derecho Internacional, the AUTHOR grants exclusive economic and/or exploitation rights: reproduction, distribution, public communication, transformation/translation/creation of derivative works, and commercialisation to the University of Navarra through its Publications Service, for the maximum legal period in force -the author's lifetime and seventy years after his or her death or declaration of death-, in any country, and in any of the current and future publishing modalities, both in print and electronic versions.
In the event that the article is not accepted for publication , this transfer of rights lapses with the communication of the refusal to the AUTHOR.
The AUTHOR affirms that the article is unpublished, that it has not been sent simultaneously to another publication medium and that the rights have not been transferred exclusively previously. He is responsible to the University of Navarra through its Publications Service for the authorship and originality of his work, as well as for all pecuniary charges that may arise for the University of Navarra through its Publications Service, in favor of third parties due to actions, claims or conflicts arising from the breach of obligations by the AUTHOR.
